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CPU boardComputer hardware includes the physical, tangible parts or components of a, such as the,. By contrast, is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is ' or rigid with respect to changes or modifications; whereas software is 'soft' because it is easy to. Intermediate between software and hardware is ', which is software that is strongly coupled to the particular hardware of a computer system and thus the most difficult to change but also among the most stable with respect to consistency of interface.

The progression from levels of 'hardness' to 'softness' in parallels a progression of in computing.Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable system, although exist with only hardware components. Von Neumann architecture schemeThe template for all modern computers is the, detailed in a by Hungarian mathematician. This describes a design architecture for an electronic with subdivisions of a consisting of an and, a containing an and, a to store both data and, external, and mechanisms. The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a in which an instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time because they share a common.

This is referred to as the and often limits the performance of the system. Types of computer systems Personal computer. Main article:The computer case encloses and holds most of the components of the system.

It provides mechanical support and protection for internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power supplies, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The case is also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer, and protects internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large tower cases provide extra internal space for multiple disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases provide less expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video display built into the same case. Portable and laptop computers require cases that provide impact protection for the unit. A current development in laptop computers is a detachable keyboard, which allows the system to be configured as a touch-screen tablet.

Hobbyists may decorate the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called.Power supply. Main article:The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with that connects the other parts of the computer including the, the, the disk drives (, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the. The (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of tiny (MOSFETs).Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:.

The (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, and is referred to as the brain of the computer which get a hold of program instruction from (RAM), interprets and processes it and then send it backs to computer result so that the relevant components can carry out the instructions. The CPU is a, which is on a (MOS) (IC) chip. It is usually by a heat sink and fan, or water-cooling system. Most newer CPU include an on-die (GPU). The of CPU governs how fast it executes instructions, and is measured in GHz; typical values lie between 1 GHz and 5 GHz.

Many modern computers have the option to overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for improved cooling. The, which includes the, mediates communication between the CPU and the other components of the system, including main memory; as well as, which is connected to the north bridge, and supports auxiliary interfaces and buses; and, finally, a chip, connected through the south bridge, which supports the slowest and most legacy components like, and. (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively accessed by the CPU.

For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up memory; this is stored in the RAM until the web browser is closed. It is typically a type of (DRAM), such as (SDRAM), where chips store data on consisting of MOSFETs. RAM usually comes on (DIMMs) in the sizes of 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much larger. (ROM), which stores the that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution, a process known as, or ' or 'booting up'. The ROM is typically a chip, which stores data on memory cells. The (Basic Input Output System) includes boot and power management firmware. Newer motherboards use (UEFI) instead of BIOS.

that connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand cards for graphics and sound. The (complementary MOS), which powers the for date and time in the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a. The (also known as the graphics card), which processes computer graphics.

More powerful graphics cards are better suited to handle strenuous tasks, such as playing intensive or running software. A video card contains a (GPU) and (typically a type of ), both fabricated on (MOS IC) chips. make up the (VRM), which controls how much other hardware components receive.Expansion cards.

Main article:A storage device is any computing hardware and that is used for storing, porting and extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and permanently, and can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar computing device.

Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers.Fixed media Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. (HDDs) are found in virtually all older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but (SSDs) are faster and more power efficient, although currently more expensive than hard drives in terms of dollar per gigabyte, so are often found in personal computers built post-2007. SSDs use, which stores data on chips consisting of. Some systems may use a for greater performance or reliability.Removable media To transfer data between computers, an external device (such as a or ) or (such as a, or ) may be used.

Their usefulness depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have an (ODD), and virtually all have at least one (USB) port.Input and output peripherals. Main article:and devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The following are either standard or very common to many computer systems.Input allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most personal computers have a and, but laptop systems typically use a instead of a mouse. Other input devices include, and.Output device display information in a human readable form. Such devices could include, or a.Mainframe computer. Main article:A is superficially similar to a mainframe, but is instead intended for extremely demanding computational tasks.

As of June 2018, the fastest supercomputer on the supercomputer list is the, in the United States, with a score of 122.3 PFLOPS, by around 29 PFLOPS.The term supercomputer does not refer to a specific technology. Rather it indicates the fastest computations available at any given time. In mid 2011, the fastest supercomputers boasted speeds exceeding one petaflop, or 1 quadrillion (10^15 or 1,000 trillion) floating point operations per second.Supercomputers are fast but extremely costly, so they are generally used by large organizations to execute computationally demanding tasks involving large data sets. Supercomputers typically run military and scientific applications.

Although costly, they are also being used for commercial applications where huge amounts of data must be analyzed. For example, large banks employ supercomputers to calculate the risks and returns of various investment strategies, and healthcare organizations use them to analyze giant databases of patient data to determine optimal treatments for various diseases and problems incurring to the country. This section needs expansion with:, and hardware; more generally. You can help. ( October 2018)Hardware upgrade When using computer hardware, an means adding new hardware to a computer that improves its performance, adds capacity or new features. For example, a user could perform a hardware upgrade to replace the with a to get a boost in performance or increase the amount of files that may be stored.

Also, the user could increase the RAM so the computer may run more smoothly. The user could add a in order to fully use USB 3.0 devices, or could upgrade the for extra rendering power.

Performing such hardware upgrades may be necessary for older computers to meet a programs' system requirements.Sales. This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( September 2018)For the third consecutive year, U.S. Business-to-business channel sales (sales through distributors and commercial resellers) increased, ending up in 2013 at nearly 6 percent at $61.7 billion.

The growth was the fastest sales increase since the end of the recession. Sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth quarter with a 6.956 percent increase over the fourth quarter of 2012. Recycling. Because computer parts contain materials, there is a growing movement to recycle old and outdated parts.

Computer hardware contain dangerous chemicals such as: lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According to the these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and parts will reduce air, water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions. Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal.

Legislation makes it mandatory to computers through the approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the, DVD drive, the, or, and other similar removable parts can be reused.Toxic computer components The contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the metal plates. Resistors, semi-conductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium. When these types of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the environment.Environmental effects According to the only around 15% of the actually is recycled.

When e-waste byproducts leach into ground water, are burned, or get mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated with such toxins include impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys. That's why even wires have to be recycled. Different companies have different techniques to recycle a wire. The most popular one is the grinder that separates the copper wires from the plastic/rubber casing.

When the processes is done there are two different piles left; one containing the copper powder, and the other containing plastic/rubber pieces. Computer monitors, and all have a similar way of being recycled. For example, first each of the parts are taken apart then all of the inner parts get separated and placed into its own bin. National services Recycling a computer is made easier by a few of the national services, such as. Both companies will take back the computer of their make or any other make. Otherwise a computer can be donated to which is an organization that recycles and refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc. See also.Sources.

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Learning materials related to at Wikiversity.